Fueled by the growing importance of the Internet, interest in the area of distributed systems (two or more computers connected by a communications medium, alternatively termed a “distributed computing environment”) has increased in recent years. Programmers desiring to take advantage of distributed systems modify existing application programs to perform on distributed systems, or design applications for placement on distributed systems.
A distributed application is an application containing interconnected application units (“units”) that are placed on more than one computer in a distributed system. By placing units on more than one computer in a distributed system, a distributed application can exploit the capabilities of the distributed system to share information and resources, and to increase application reliability and system extensibility. Further, a distributed application can efficiently utilize the varying resources of the computers in a distributed system.
Various types of modular software, including software designed in an object-oriented framework, can conceivably be distributed throughout a distributed system. Object-oriented programming models, such as the Microsoft Component Object Model (“COM”), define a standard structure of software objects that can be interconnected and collectively assembled into an application (which, being assembled from component objects, is herein referred to as a “component application”). The objects are hosted in an execution environment created by system services, such as the object execution environments provided by COM. This system exposes services for use by component application objects in the form of application programming interfaces (“APIs”), system-provided objects and system-defined object interfaces. Distributed object systems such as Microsoft Corporation's Distributed Component Object Model (DCOM) and the Object Management Group's Common Object Request Broker Architecture (CORBA) provide system services that support execution of distributed applications.
In accordance with object-oriented programming principles, the component application is a collection of object classes which each model real world or abstract items by combining data to represent the item's properties with functions to represent the item's functionality. More specifically, an object is an instance of a programmer-defined type referred to as a class, which exhibits the characteristics of data encapsulation, polymorphism and inheritance. Data encapsulation refers to the combining of data (also referred to as properties of an object) with methods that operate on the data (also referred to as member functions of an object) into a unitary software component (i.e., the object), such that the object hides its internal composition, structure and operation and exposes its functionality to client programs that utilize the object only through one or more interfaces. An interface of the object is a group of semantically related member functions of the object. In other words, the client programs do not access the object's data directly, but instead call functions on the object's interfaces to operate on the data. Polymorphism refers to the ability to view (i.e., interact with) two similar objects through a common interface, thereby eliminating the need to differentiate between two objects. Inheritance refers to the derivation of different classes of objects from a base class, where the derived classes inherit the properties and characteristics of the base class.
An application containing easily identifiable and separable units is more easily distributed throughout a distributed system. One way to identify separable units is to describe such units with structural metadata about the units. Metadata is data that describes other data. In this context, structural metadata is data describing the structure of application units. Further, application units are desirably location-transparent for in-process, cross-process, and cross-computer communications. In other words, it is desirable for communications between application units to abstract away location of application units. This flexibly enables the distribution of application units.
In many applications, one or more units of the application is subject to a location constraint. Such a unit must be located on a particular computer in a distributed computing environment in order for the application to function correctly. A single unit that must be placed on a particular computer in order to function correctly is subject to a “per-unit location constraint.” For example, a unit that directly accesses a graphical user interface might be constrained to placement on a client computer in a client-server computer configuration. Conversely, a unit that directly accesses storage facilities might be constrained to the server computer. A pair of units that can be located on any computer in a distributed computing environment, but must be located together are subject to a “pair-wise location constraint.” For example, if two units communicate across an undocumented interface such that communication across the interface cannot be supported by the system that remotes application units, the two units are subject to a pair-wise location constraint. An undocumented interface is one for which there is no description or inadequate description available.
The partitioning and distribution of applications are problematic and complicated by many factors.
To partition an application for distribution, a programmer typically determines a plan for distributing units of the application based on past experience, intuition, or data gathered from a prototype application. The application's design is then tailored to the selected distribution plan. Even if the programmer selects a distribution plan that is optimal for a particular computer network, the present-day distribution plan might be rendered obsolete by changes in network topology. Moreover, assumptions used in choosing the distribution plan might later prove to be incorrect, resulting in an application poorly matched to its intended environment.
Generally, to distribute an application, one can work externally or internally relative to the application. External distribution mechanisms work without any modification of the application and include network file systems and remote windowing systems on a distributed system. Although external distribution mechanisms are easy to use and flexible, they often engender burdensome transfers of data between nodes of the distributed system, and for this reason are far from optimal. Internal distribution mechanisms typically modify the application to be distributed in various ways. Internal distribution mechanisms allow optimized application-specific distribution, but frequently entail an inordinate amount of extra programmer effort to find an improved distribution and modify the application. Further, internal systems frequently provide ad hoc, one-time results that are tied to the performance of a particular network at a particular time.